How are ferns mainly propagated?

Ferns are primarily propagated from spores, which are the reproductive units of these plants. Unlike flowering plants that rely on seeds, ferns utilize spores for reproduction. Spores are typically found on the undersides of the fronds and are released into the environment, where they can germinate under the right conditions, giving rise to a gametophyte. This gametophyte goes through a life cycle stage that ultimately produces new fern plants.

While division can be an effective method for propagating established fern plants, it is not the main method used for propagation in this group. Cuttings are generally not a viable method for ferns, and while seeds can be produced by some fern species, they do not represent the primary means of propagation compared to spores. This unique method of propagation through spores defines the reproductive strategy of ferns in the plant kingdom.